Neuroscience and Early Years Brain Development: Complete Guide

Key Takeaways

• Brain architecture fundamentals: The developing brain forms through a precisely timed sequence from neural tube formation (3-4 weeks after conception) through adolescence, with different regions maturing at different rates and the prefrontal cortex continuing development into the mid-20s.
• Experience-dependent development: Early experiences physically shape brain architecture through processes like synapse formation and pruning, creating the neural foundation for learning, behavior, and health throughout life.
• Sensitive periods: While the brain remains plastic throughout life, there are windows of heightened sensitivity when specific types of experiences have particularly powerful effects on brain development, making timing of experiences and interventions important.
• Resilience and intervention: Despite early challenges, the brain maintains remarkable capacity for adaptation, providing opportunities for positive intervention and recovery even after adversity.

Why Brain Development Matters

Have you ever wondered why a toddler can learn multiple languages effortlessly while you struggled through Spanish class? Or why teenagers seem hardwired to take risks that make adults cringe? The answers lie in the fascinating world of neurodevelopment – the process by which the brain forms, grows, and changes throughout early life.

For students of psychology, sociology, and anthropology, understanding early brain development isn’t just fascinating—it’s essential. This knowledge forms the biological foundation for explaining human behavior, cognitive abilities, social interactions, and cultural patterns that you’ll encounter throughout your studies.

Early brain development represents one of the most remarkable engineering feats in nature. From a simple tube of cells emerges the most complex structure in the known universe—a brain with roughly 86 billion neurons forming trillions of connections. This intricate organ controls everything from your heartbeat to your deepest philosophical thoughts.

What makes this topic particularly crucial for your studies is how it bridges multiple disciplines. The development of the brain explains:

• For psychology students: How cognitive abilities emerge, why certain developmental stages occur when they do, and the biological basis of many psychological theories.
• For sociology students: How social environments shape brain development, contributing to patterns of behavior across different groups and communities.
• For anthropology students: How evolutionary pressures shaped human brain development and how culture both influences and is influenced by our neurological makeup.

More immediately for many of you, understanding neuroscience and early brain development is a core requirement in high school psychology curricula across exam boards including AQA and Edexcel in the UK and aligned with frameworks like the Common Core State Standards in the US.

In AQA’s specification, for example, you need to understand “brain structure: frontal lobe, temporal lobe, parietal lobe, occipital lobe and cerebellum” along with their basic functions (AQA, 2023). Similarly, Edexcel requires knowledge of both brain structures and developmental processes.

But beyond exam requirements, this knowledge provides you with a scientific foundation for critically evaluating psychological theories. When you understand how the brain actually develops and functions, you can better assess claims about human behavior and mental processes.

This article will guide you through the essential concepts of early brain development in a way that’s directly applicable to your coursework and exams. We’ll explore the structure and function of the developing brain, trace its remarkable journey from conception through adolescence, examine the factors that influence this development, and connect these biological processes to the psychological phenomena you’re studying.

By the end of this article, you’ll have a clear understanding of how those 86 billion neurons come together to create the thinking, feeling human beings at the center of your studies—and you’ll be well-prepared to demonstrate this knowledge in your assignments and exams.

Let’s begin by exploring the fundamental structures of the brain and how they develop, providing the biological framework for the psychological concepts you’ll encounter throughout your coursework.

Brain Architecture: Essential Structures and Functions

Understanding the brain’s structure is like having a map before exploring a new city—it helps you navigate and make sense of everything else you’ll learn. For high school psychology students, mastering these basic structures is fundamental for exam success.

Building Blocks: Neurons and Neural Communication

At the most basic level, the brain consists of specialized cells called neurons. These remarkable cells form the foundation of all brain activity and development. Each neuron has:

• A cell body containing the nucleus and cellular machinery
• Dendrites that receive signals from other neurons
• An axon that transmits signals to other neurons
• Myelin sheath (on some neurons) that speeds up signal transmission
• Synapses where chemical signals pass between neurons

Neurons communicate through both electrical and chemical signals. When a neuron is activated, an electrical impulse travels down its axon. At the synapse, this electrical signal triggers the release of chemicals called neurotransmitters, which cross the synaptic gap and bind to receptors on the receiving neuron.

Exam Tip: Examiners often ask about the role of neurotransmitters in brain development. Be prepared to discuss major neurotransmitters like glutamate (excitatory), GABA (inhibitory), dopamine (reward and motivation), and serotonin (mood regulation), and how their balance changes during development.

Major Brain Structures and Their Functions

The brain is divided into several major regions, each with specialized functions. For your exams, focus particularly on these key areas:

The Cerebrum

The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain, divided into two hemispheres connected by the corpus callosum. The outer layer, called the cerebral cortex, is responsible for higher cognitive functions. It’s divided into four lobes:

1. Frontal Lobe
   • Functions: Decision-making, planning, problem-solving, impulse control, motor control
   • Development: One of the last regions to fully mature (continues into mid-20s)
   • Psychological significance: Linked to personality, judgment, and executive functions
2. Parietal Lobe
   • Functions: Sensory processing, spatial awareness, attention
   • Development: Undergoes significant growth during early childhood
   • Psychological significance: Important for mathematical thinking and understanding relationships between objects
3. Temporal Lobe
   • Functions: Auditory processing, language comprehension, memory formation
   • Development: Language areas develop rapidly during early childhood
   • Psychological significance: Critical for verbal learning and emotional processing
4. Occipital Lobe
   • Functions: Visual processing
   • Development: Sensitive to visual input during early development
   • Psychological significance: Necessary for reading, facial recognition, and visual learning

Other Essential Brain Regions

• Cerebellum
  • Located at the back of the brain
  • Coordinates movement, balance, and posture
  • Develops rapidly in the first year of life
  • Also plays a role in certain cognitive functions
• Brain Stem
  • Controls basic life functions (breathing, heart rate, sleep)
  • One of the first brain regions to develop
  • Includes the medulla, pons, and midbrain
• Limbic System
  • Includes the amygdala (emotional processing), hippocampus (memory formation), and hypothalamus (homeostasis)
  • Central to emotional development and stress responses
  • Development is influenced by early life experiences

Brain Lateralization and Specialized Functions

The left and right hemispheres of the brain show some specialization in function, often called lateralization. While both sides work together for most tasks:

• Left hemisphere tends to process information more sequentially and is typically dominant for language in most people
• Right hemisphere often processes information more holistically and is involved in spatial awareness and emotional tone

This specialization develops gradually during childhood, with environmental influences playing an important role.

Content Organization Tool: The FLOPT Method

Remember the main lobes of the cerebral cortex with “FLOPT”:

• Frontal: Forward thinking (planning, decisions)
• Limbic system: Loves and fears (emotions)
• Occipital: Optics (vision)
• Parietal: Position sense (spatial awareness)
• Temporal: Talking and Tunes (language and hearing)

Understanding these brain structures provides the foundation for exploring how they develop over time—our next topic. Read our in-depth article on Roger Sperry’s Split Brain study here.

From Womb to World: The Timeline of Brain Development

Brain development follows a fascinating trajectory from conception through adolescence and beyond. This remarkable journey combines precisely timed genetic instructions with environmental influences to create the most complex organ in the human body.

Prenatal Development: The Foundation Forms

Brain development begins astonishingly early—around the third week after conception, when the neural tube forms. This process begins with the neural plate forming around day 16, folding into the neural groove by day 18, and then fully closing into the neural tube by approximately day 27-28 (Stiles & Jernigan, 2010). This simple structure will eventually become the brain and spinal cord through a process that combines rapid cell proliferation, migration, and specialization.

Key Milestones in Prenatal Brain Development

• Weeks 3-4: Neural tube formation
• Weeks 5-7: Primary brain vesicles form (forebrain, midbrain, hindbrain)
• Weeks 8-16: Rapid neuron production (hundreds of thousands of neurons per minute)
• Weeks 16-24: Migration of neurons to their designated locations
• Weeks 24-38: Synaptic formation and pruning begins
• Third trimester: Brain grows dramatically in size and complexity

During this prenatal period, the brain is extremely vulnerable to environmental influences. Maternal nutrition, stress levels, and exposure to toxins can all significantly impact brain development, potentially leading to long-term consequences.

Model Answer Excerpt: Prenatal Brain Development

“Prenatal brain development follows a precisely timed sequence that begins with neural tube formation and proceeds through neurogenesis, migration, and initial synaptic formation. Each stage builds upon the previous one, creating a scaffolding for increasingly complex functions. The timing of these processes explains why certain teratogens, like alcohol, can have devastating effects when exposure occurs during critical periods of development. For example, alcohol exposure during weeks 3-4 can disrupt neural tube formation, while exposure during weeks 8-16 can impair neurogenesis, potentially leading to microcephaly and cognitive impairments characteristic of Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders.”

Examiner comment: This response demonstrates excellent knowledge of the sequence of prenatal development while making relevant connections to real-world implications. The student clearly understands the concept of critical periods and uses appropriate terminology throughout.

Infancy and Early Childhood: Explosive Growth

The brain undergoes its most dramatic development during the first three years of life. During this period:

• Brain weight increases to about 80% of adult size by age 2
• Synapse formation (connections between neurons) occurs at an astounding rate
• Myelination (the process of coating axons with a fatty substance that speeds up signal transmission) accelerates

The Role of Experience in Early Brain Development

During these early years, experience plays a crucial role in shaping neural connections. The brain initially produces an overabundance of neural connections, followed by a process called synaptic pruning where less-used connections are eliminated while frequently used ones are strengthened.

This “use it or lose it” principle is central to understanding how early experiences shape brain development. For example:

• Language exposure during the first few years strongly influences language areas in the brain
• Visual stimulation shapes the development of the occipital lobe
• Early social interactions affect the development of emotional processing systems

Childhood Through Adolescence: Refinement and Specialization

During middle childhood (ages 6-12), the brain continues to develop, with particular emphasis on:

• Fine-tuning of motor skills (cerebellum)
• Development of attention networks (frontal-parietal connections)
• Enhancement of language capabilities (left temporal lobe)
• Growth of mathematical and logical reasoning (parietal lobe)

The Adolescent Brain: Under Construction

Contrary to earlier beliefs, we now know that the brain continues significant development throughout adolescence and into early adulthood. Key developments include:

• Ongoing myelination improving neural efficiency
• Synaptic pruning continuing, especially in the frontal lobes
• Changes in dopamine systems affecting reward processing and motivation
• Integration of emotional and cognitive systems

These biological changes help explain characteristic adolescent behaviors like:

• Increased risk-taking and sensation-seeking
• Greater peer influence
• Emotional volatility
• Creative thinking and idealism

The prefrontal cortex, responsible for judgment, decision-making, and impulse control, is one of the last brain regions to fully mature—typically not complete until the mid-20s, with some development continuing into the early 30s (Arain et al., 2013). This mismatch between a fully developed emotional system and a still-developing control system helps explain many aspects of adolescent behavior.

Critical Periods and Sensitive Periods

An important concept in brain development is the distinction between critical and sensitive periods:

• Critical periods are specific windows of time when the brain requires certain types of input for proper development, and the absence of this input leads to permanent deficits. For example, if a child has untreated congenital cataracts blocking visual input during early development, visual processing areas may never develop normally.
• Sensitive periods are windows when the brain is especially receptive to certain types of experience, but development can still occur (though perhaps less efficiently) outside these windows. Language acquisition has sensitive periods—learning a second language is easier in childhood but remains possible throughout life.

Exam Tip: Developmental Timeline Mastery

Understanding this timeline gives you the foundation to explore what shapes these developmental processes—both genetic and environmental factors.

Nature Meets Nurture: What Shapes the Developing Brain

The development of the brain is influenced by a complex interplay between genetic factors (nature) and environmental experiences (nurture). Modern neuroscience has moved beyond simplistic debates about which is more important, recognizing that both play crucial and interdependent roles. Read our in-depth article on Nature vs Nurture here.

Genetic Blueprints: Nature’s Foundation

Genes provide the basic instructions for brain development, guiding processes like:

• The migration of neurons to their proper locations
• The initial formation of major brain structures
• The timing of critical developmental windows
• The production of essential proteins and neurotransmitters

Several key genes have been identified that play significant roles in brain development. For example:

• FOXP2: Associated with language development
• COMT: Affects dopamine processing in the prefrontal cortex
• BDNF: Regulates neuroplasticity and learning

However, genes don’t operate in isolation. The expression of genes—whether they are turned “on” or “off”—is influenced by environmental factors through a process called epigenetics.

Environmental Influences: Nurture’s Powerful Role

The environment begins shaping brain development from conception and continues throughout life. Key environmental factors include:

Nutrition and Physical Health

• Prenatal nutrition: Adequate folate, iodine, and other nutrients are essential for proper neural tube formation and brain development
• Early childhood nutrition: Protein, essential fatty acids, iron, and other nutrients support rapid brain growth
• Physical activity: Exercise promotes the production of neurotrophic factors that support brain development

Social Experiences and Relationships

• Attachment relationships: Secure attachments promote healthy development of stress response systems and emotional regulation
• Language exposure: The quantity and quality of language a child hears shapes language areas in the brain
• Play experiences: Various forms of play support the development of problem-solving, creativity, and social understanding

Stress and Adversity

• Toxic stress: Prolonged activation of stress response systems without adequate buffering relationships can disrupt brain architecture
• Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs): Trauma, abuse, neglect, and household dysfunction can alter brain development with potential lifelong consequences
• Protective factors: Supportive relationships and environments can buffer the effects of stress and adversity

Epigenetics: Where Nature and Nurture Meet

The field of epigenetics explores how environmental factors can influence gene expression without changing the DNA sequence itself. This helps explain how experiences can have lasting effects on brain development.

Key epigenetic mechanisms include:

• DNA methylation: Chemical markers that can turn genes “off”
• Histone modification: Changes in proteins that DNA wraps around, affecting gene accessibility
• Non-coding RNAs: Molecules that can regulate gene expression

These mechanisms help explain how early experiences can have enduring effects on brain function and behavior.

Exam Tip: Nature-Nurture Examples That Impress Examiners

When discussing nature-nurture interactions in brain development, use these sophisticated examples:

1. MAOA Gene × Maltreatment: The “warrior gene” (MAOA) interacts with childhood maltreatment to influence antisocial behavior. Low-activity MAOA variants combined with maltreatment increase risk, while high-activity variants may be protective.
2. Differential Susceptibility: Some genetic variants create not just vulnerability but enhanced sensitivity to both positive and negative environments. Children with these “orchid genes” fare worse in adverse environments but better in supportive ones compared to children with “dandelion genes.”
3. Stress Reactivity: Genetically influenced differences in stress response systems interact with early caregiving environments to shape emotion regulation abilities throughout life.

Neuroplasticity: The Brain’s Adaptability

The brain’s ability to change in response to experience—called neuroplasticity—is greatest during early development but continues throughout life. This plasticity takes several forms:

• Synaptic plasticity: Strengthening or weakening of connections between neurons
• Structural plasticity: Changes in the physical structure of neurons or brain regions
• Neurogenesis: The formation of new neurons (primarily in the hippocampus and olfactory bulb)

Neuroplasticity underlies learning and memory and allows the brain to adapt to changing environments and recover from some types of injury.

Factors That Promote Positive Neuroplasticity

• Enriched environments with appropriate stimulation
• Physical exercise that increases blood flow and growth factors
• Mental challenges that require new learning
• Social connections that provide emotional support
• Adequate sleep for memory consolidation and neural repair

Factors That Limit Healthy Neuroplasticity

• Chronic stress that elevates cortisol levels
• Social isolation or deprivation
• Malnutrition or specific nutrient deficiencies
• Environmental toxins like lead or alcohol
• Physical inactivity or excessive screen time

Content Organization Tool: SHAPES Framework

Remember key factors shaping brain development with the SHAPES framework:

• Stress and Support (balance of stress and supportive relationships)
• Health factors (nutrition, sleep, exercise, toxin exposure)
• Attachment and early relationships
• Play and exploration opportunities
• Education and cognitive stimulation
• Sensory experiences (quality and timing)

Understanding these influences on brain development provides context for examining what happens when development diverges from typical patterns.

When Development Diverges: Disorders and Interventions

While brain development follows general patterns, there is significant individual variation in this process. Sometimes, due to genetic, environmental, or combined factors, brain development diverges substantially from typical patterns, leading to neurodevelopmental disorders.

Common Neurodevelopmental Disorders

Neurodevelopmental disorders appear early in life and affect the development and functioning of the brain. Key disorders you should understand include:

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)

ASD is characterized by differences in social communication and interaction, along with restricted or repetitive behaviors, interests, or activities. Neurological features include:

• Atypical neural connectivity (both over- and under-connectivity in different brain regions)
• Accelerated brain growth in early childhood
• Differences in pruning processes
• Potential differences in mirror neuron systems

Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

ADHD involves persistent patterns of inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity that interfere with functioning or development. Brain-based features include:

• Delayed maturation of the prefrontal cortex
• Differences in the functioning of dopamine systems
• Altered connectivity in attention networks
• Differences in reward processing circuits

Specific Learning Disorders

These disorders affect the acquisition and use of academic skills despite adequate instruction. Neurological correlates include:

• For dyslexia: Differences in left hemisphere language areas and their connectivity
• For dyscalculia: Atypical structure and function in parietal regions associated with number processing
• For dysgraphia: Differences in motor planning areas and visual-spatial processing

Brain Injuries and Environmental Impacts

In addition to developmental disorders, brain injuries and environmental factors can significantly alter brain development:

Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI)

TBI in childhood can have particularly significant effects because it disrupts ongoing developmental processes. Effects depend on:

• Severity and location of the injury
• Age at time of injury (younger brains are often more plastic but also more vulnerable)
• Pre-injury functioning and environment
• Quality of rehabilitation and support

Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders (FASD)

Prenatal alcohol exposure can cause a range of physical, cognitive, and behavioral outcomes. Neurological effects include:

• Reduced overall brain volume
• Corpus callosum abnormalities
• Changes in frontal lobe development
• Altered connectivity between brain regions

Effects of Early Adversity and Toxic Stress

Early adversity, including neglect, abuse, and chronic stress, can alter brain development through:

• Changes in stress response systems (HPA axis)
• Altered development of the prefrontal cortex and emotion regulation circuits
• Effects on the hippocampus and memory systems
• Impacts on the integration of brain networks

Resilience and Intervention Approaches

Despite challenges to typical development, the brain has remarkable capacity for adaptation and compensation. Interventions that capitalize on neuroplasticity include:

Early Intervention Programs

Programs that provide structured support during sensitive periods of development can be particularly effective. These often target:

• Language stimulation
• Social interaction
• Motor skill development
• Parent-child relationships

Educational Interventions

Specialized educational approaches based on neuroscience principles include:

• Multi-sensory teaching for dyslexia
• Scaffolded learning for various cognitive challenges
• Executive function training for ADHD
• Social skills development for autism

Therapeutic Approaches

Various therapeutic approaches target specific aspects of brain function:

• Cognitive-behavioral therapy for anxiety and emotion regulation
• Play therapy for processing traumatic experiences
• Occupational therapy for sensory processing and motor challenges
• Speech and language therapy for communication development

Model Answer Excerpt: Neurodevelopmental Disorders and Interventions

“Neurodevelopmental disorders reflect atypical brain development resulting from complex gene-environment interactions. For example, in autism spectrum disorder, research has identified both genetic risk factors and environmental influences that affect neuronal migration, synapse formation, and pruning processes. This results in altered connectivity patterns, with some brain regions showing over-connectivity and others showing under-connectivity. The timing of intervention is crucial due to sensitive periods in development. Early interventions like Denver Model therapy capitalize on neuroplasticity by targeting social communication during periods when these neural circuits are most responsive to experience. The effectiveness of these approaches demonstrates how understanding developmental neuroscience can translate into meaningful clinical applications.”

Examiner comment: This response demonstrates sophisticated understanding by connecting specific neurological mechanisms to behavioral symptoms and intervention approaches. The student effectively links theoretical knowledge to practical applications and shows awareness of the importance of timing in development.

Ethical Considerations in Neurodevelopmental Research and Intervention

The study of neurodevelopmental differences raises important ethical considerations:

• Neurodiversity perspective: Viewing some neurological differences as natural human variation rather than pathology
• Tension between early intervention and stigmatization: Balancing the benefits of early identification against risks of labeling
• Resource allocation: Ensuring equitable access to diagnosis and intervention
• Cultural considerations: Recognizing cultural differences in understanding development and disability

Exam Tip: Common Exam Question Patterns for Neurodevelopmental Disorders

1. Compare and contrast questions: “Compare the neurological features of autism and ADHD.” Focus on both similarities (e.g., both involve executive function differences) and differences (e.g., different patterns of connectivity).
2. Evaluation questions: “Evaluate the evidence that early intervention can alter the developmental trajectory in neurodevelopmental disorders.” Include both supporting evidence and limitations.
3. Application questions: “How might understanding of neuroplasticity inform educational approaches for children with learning disorders?” Connect theoretical knowledge to practical applications.
4. Ethical analysis questions: “Discuss ethical implications of early screening for neurodevelopmental disorders.” Consider multiple perspectives and stakeholders.

To fully understand these disorders and interventions, it’s essential to know how scientists study the developing brain—our next topic.

Inside the Research: How We Study the Developing Brain

Understanding how the developing brain works presents unique research challenges. Scientists have developed an impressive array of methods to study brain development, each with distinct advantages and limitations.

Neuroimaging Techniques

Modern technology allows researchers to observe the living brain in action through various imaging techniques:

Structural Imaging

These techniques provide detailed images of brain anatomy:

• Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI): Uses magnetic fields and radio waves to create detailed images of brain structure
• Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI): A specialized MRI technique that maps white matter tracts, showing how different brain regions are connected

Functional Imaging

These methods reveal brain activity:

• Functional MRI (fMRI): Detects changes in blood flow associated with neural activity
• Electroencephalography (EEG): Measures electrical activity of large groups of neurons through electrodes placed on the scalp
• Magnetoencephalography (MEG): Detects magnetic fields produced by electrical activity in the brain

Developmental Applications

When applied to developmental questions, these techniques have revealed:

• Patterns of brain maturation from infancy through adolescence
• Changes in connectivity between brain regions over time
• Relationships between brain development and cognitive abilities
• How experience shapes developing neural circuits

Animal Models in Developmental Neuroscience

While human studies are essential, much of our knowledge comes from animal research. Animal models allow:

• Direct manipulation of genetic and environmental factors
• Invasive techniques not possible with humans
• Study of biological mechanisms at cellular and molecular levels
• Controlled longitudinal studies across development

Key animal models include:

• Rodent models: Used to study basic mechanisms of brain development
• Non-human primates: Provide insights into complex cognitive and social development
• Genetically modified organisms: Help identify the roles of specific genes

The ethical use of animal models requires careful consideration of welfare concerns and the translation of findings to humans.

Longitudinal Studies of Human Development

Following the same individuals over time provides unique developmental insights:

• Birth cohort studies: Follow large groups from birth through adulthood
• Twin studies: Help distinguish genetic from environmental influences
• Family studies: Examine intergenerational patterns
• High-risk cohort studies: Follow children at elevated risk for certain conditions

Notable examples include:

• The Bucharest Early Intervention Project, which examined brain development in children raised in institutional care (Nelson et al., 2014)
• The ABCD Study (Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development), following brain development in over 10,000 children across adolescence
• The Minnesota Twin Family Study, which has revealed how genes and environment interact in development

Emerging Research Methods

New approaches continue to advance our understanding:

• Optogenetics: Allows researchers to control specific neurons using light
• Single-cell RNA sequencing: Reveals gene expression patterns in individual brain cells
• Brain organoids: Lab-grown 3D structures that mimic aspects of human brain development
• Computational modeling: Simulates developmental processes to test theories

Content Organization Tool: METHOD Framework

When discussing research methods in brain development, remember the METHOD framework:

• Measurement (what’s being measured and how)
• Ethical considerations
• Temporal resolution (ability to detect timing of changes)
• Human application (how findings translate to human development)
• Observation vs. manipulation (is the method observational or experimental)
• Developmental sensitivity (appropriateness for different developmental stages)

Exam Tip: Critical Evaluation Points for Research Methods

For high marks in method evaluation questions:

• Validity: Does the method measure what it claims to measure? (E.g., does fMRI truly measure neural activity or just blood flow?)
• Ecological validity: Do laboratory findings generalize to real-world development? (E.g., studying attention in an MRI scanner vs. a classroom)
• Developmental appropriateness: Is the method suitable for the age group being studied? (E.g., movement artifacts in young children’s brain scans)
• Ethical considerations: Are there special ethical concerns when studying developing populations? (E.g., informed consent with children)
• Translation across species: When discussing animal research, address similarities and differences between species and caution in generalizing findings.

These research methods have produced the evidence base that supports our understanding of early brain development, which we’ll explore next.

Evidence in Action: Key Studies That Changed Our Understanding

The field of developmental neuroscience has been shaped by landmark studies that have transformed our understanding of how the brain develops. Knowing these key studies is essential for connecting theory to evidence in your exams.

Classic Case Studies

Individual cases have provided unique insights into brain development and function:

Phineas Gage (1848)

Though not a developmental case per se, Gage’s accident—in which an iron rod passed through his frontal lobe—provided early evidence of the frontal lobe’s role in personality and decision-making. This case established the connection between brain regions and specific functions, foundational to developmental neuroscience.

HM (Henry Molaison)

After bilateral removal of his hippocampus to treat epilepsy, HM developed profound amnesia while retaining other cognitive abilities. This case demonstrated:

• The critical role of the hippocampus in memory formation
• The distinction between different types of memory systems
• How these systems develop separately

Romanian Orphan Studies

Studies of children raised in Romanian orphanages revealed:

• Profound effects of early deprivation on brain development
• The concept of sensitive periods for social and emotional development
• Evidence for both impairment and recovery potential

Influential Research Programs

Several research programs have significantly advanced our understanding of brain development:

Huttenlocher’s Synapse Studies (1970s-1990s)

Peter Huttenlocher’s post-mortem studies of human brains showed:

• Massive overproduction of synapses in early childhood
• Subsequent pruning based on experience
• Different timelines for different brain regions

These findings established the “use it or lose it” principle in brain development and demonstrated why early experiences are so influential.

The Bucharest Early Intervention Project

This landmark study examined children raised in Romanian orphanages who were either:

• Placed in quality foster care at different ages
• Remained in institutional care

Key findings included:

• Evidence for sensitive periods in cognitive and social development
• Greater recovery when intervention occurred before age 2
• Persistent effects on attachment and stress reactivity systems

Animal Studies of Environmental Enrichment

Studies by researchers like William Greenough demonstrated that:

• Enriched environments lead to greater dendritic branching and synaptic connections
• Deprived environments result in reduced neural complexity
• These effects are most pronounced during developmental sensitive periods

Modern Neuroimaging Research

Recent neuroimaging studies have provided unprecedented views of the developing brain:

The NIMH Study of Normal Brain Development

This large-scale longitudinal study used MRI to track brain development from childhood through adolescence, revealing:

• Different developmental trajectories for different brain regions
• The sequence of gray matter development (sensory and motor areas mature before association areas)
• Sex differences in developmental timing

Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study

This ongoing study following over 10,000 children is revealing:

• How different experiences (screen time, sports, sleep) affect brain development
• Relationships between brain development and mental health
• Influences of socioeconomic factors on neural development

Functional Connectivity Studies

Research using fMRI to examine brain networks has shown:

• Development from local to distributed connectivity patterns
• Strengthening of long-range connections throughout childhood and adolescence
• Relationships between network development and cognitive abilities

How Research Has Changed Clinical and Educational Practice

These scientific advances have transformed how we approach child development:

Early Intervention Programs

Programs like Early Start Denver Model for young children with autism are based on evidence about neural plasticity during sensitive periods.

Trauma-Informed Care

Understanding the neurodevelopmental impacts of adverse childhood experiences has led to trauma-informed approaches in education, healthcare, and social services.

Educational Neuroscience

Research on brain development has influenced educational practices related to:

• Reading instruction based on understanding of language circuit development
• Mathematics education informed by neurodevelopmental patterns
• School start times adjusted for adolescent sleep-wake cycles

Exam Tip: Research Evidence Pyramid

When discussing evidence in brain development, present a pyramid of evidence types from strongest to weakest:

1. Meta-analyses and systematic reviews: Studies combining results from multiple studies (e.g., meta-analyses of brain imaging studies showing consistent developmental patterns)
2. Longitudinal studies: Following the same individuals over time (e.g., ABCD Study tracking brain development through adolescence)
3. Cross-sectional studies: Comparing different age groups (e.g., MRI studies of brain volume across childhood)
4. Case-control studies: Comparing typical development to atypical conditions (e.g., comparing brain activation in children with and without ADHD)
5. Case studies: Detailed examination of individual cases (e.g., studies of Romanian orphans)

Examiners reward students who can evaluate the quality of evidence rather than simply describing findings.

Emerging Research Directions

Current research is expanding our understanding in exciting new directions:

Epigenetic Research

Studies of epigenetic mechanisms are revealing:

• How early experiences can affect gene expression in the developing brain
• Potential intergenerational effects of environment on brain development
• Biomarkers that might predict developmental trajectories

Microbiome and Brain Development

Growing evidence suggests connections between:

• Gut microbiome composition and brain development
• The gut-brain axis in neurodevelopmental disorders
• Potential dietary interventions that may support healthy brain development

Computational Neurodevelopment

Computational approaches are:

• Modeling developmental processes to test theories
• Predicting developmental outcomes from early measures
• Identifying patterns in large developmental datasets

These emerging areas highlight how rapidly our understanding of brain development continues to evolve and expand.

Real-World Applications: Using Neuroscience Knowledge

Understanding early brain development isn’t just academically interesting—it has profound practical applications across various fields. These applications demonstrate the real-world value of the neuroscience knowledge you’re acquiring.

Educational Applications

Neuroscience research has significant implications for how we approach teaching and learning:

Developmentally Appropriate Practice

Knowledge of brain development helps educators:

• Match expectations to developmental capabilities
• Recognize individual differences in developmental timing
• Design curricula that align with neural maturation patterns

Brain-Based Learning Strategies

Research on learning and memory has informed educational approaches including:

• Spaced practice that capitalizes on memory consolidation processes
• Multimodal teaching that engages multiple neural systems
• Mindfulness practices that support attention and emotional regulation

Educational Neuromyths and Their Correction

Unfortunately, misinterpretations of neuroscience have led to some educational myths:

Being able to distinguish neuroscience fact from fiction is an important skill for applying this knowledge responsibly.

Model Answer Excerpt: Educational Applications of Neuroscience

“Neuroscience research on the development of reading circuits has substantively informed educational practice. Studies using fMRI have identified specialized neural networks for different aspects of reading, including phonological processing primarily in left temporoparietal regions and visual word form recognition in the occipitotemporal ‘visual word form area.’ Longitudinal research has shown that the development of these circuits is influenced by both genetic factors and reading experience. This evidence has supported structured literacy approaches that explicitly teach phonological awareness and systematic connections between sounds and letters, particularly for children at risk for reading difficulties. However, we must interpret this evidence cautiously, as neuroimaging studies typically involve group averages and controlled laboratory conditions that may not fully capture the complexity of classroom learning. Furthermore, the translation from neural mechanism to educational practice requires bridging multiple levels of analysis, from cellular processes to classroom behavior.”

Examiner comment: This response demonstrates sophisticated understanding of how neuroscience research translates to educational applications. The student effectively connects specific neural mechanisms to educational approaches while appropriately acknowledging limitations in the evidence. The balanced evaluation shows critical thinking about evidence application.

Clinical Applications

Neurodevelopmental knowledge has transformed approaches to pediatric health:

Early Identification and Intervention

Understanding typical brain development allows for:

• Earlier identification of developmental differences
• Intervention during periods of maximal plasticity
• Prevention of cascading developmental effects

Trauma-Informed Care

Research on how trauma affects brain development has led to:

• Recognition of toxic stress effects on developing systems
• Trauma-sensitive approaches in schools and healthcare
• Interventions targeting neural systems affected by adverse experiences

Rehabilitation Approaches

Neuroscience informs rehabilitation for developmental conditions:

• Constraint-induced movement therapy for cerebral palsy based on neuroplasticity principles
• Cognitive training approaches for ADHD targeting executive function circuits
• Sensory integration therapies for sensory processing challenges

Policy Implications

Neurodevelopmental science has influenced policies affecting children and families:

Early Childhood Programs

Research on early brain development has supported:

• Investment in high-quality early childhood education
• Parental leave policies that support early bonding
• Home visiting programs for vulnerable families

Child Protection Policies

Understanding the neurodevelopmental impacts of maltreatment has influenced:

• Definitions of child abuse and neglect
• Interventions for children in foster care
• Court decisions regarding child custody and termination of parental rights

Public Health Initiatives

Brain development research has supported public health efforts including:

• Nutritional supplementation programs
• Lead abatement initiatives
• Early screening for developmental concerns

Content Organization Tool: APPLICATIONS Framework

When discussing real-world applications of neurodevelopmental science, organize your thoughts with the APPLICATIONS framework:

• Assessment (how knowledge improves developmental assessment)
• Prevention (implications for preventive interventions)
• Policy (influence on public policies)
• Learning (educational applications)
• Intervention (clinical interventions based on neuroscience)
• Communication (how to explain concepts to different stakeholders)
• Advocacy (supporting children’s developmental needs)
• Timing (importance of when interventions occur)
• Individual differences (recognizing developmental variation)
• Opportunity (creating environments that support optimal development)
• Next steps (emerging applications and future directions)
• Social justice (ensuring equitable access to supports)

Ethical Considerations in Applying Neurodevelopmental Knowledge

The application of neuroscience brings important ethical considerations:

Balancing Promise and Hype

• Avoiding oversimplification of complex neurodevelopmental processes
• Recognizing the limits of current knowledge
• Distinguishing between established evidence and emerging hypotheses

Equity and Access

• Ensuring developmental supports reach all children regardless of socioeconomic status
• Addressing cultural biases in developmental assessment and intervention
• Avoiding stigmatization of developmental differences

Privacy and Consent

• Protecting children’s privacy in research and assessment
• Addressing issues of consent for brain-based technologies
• Considering the implications of predictive developmental biomarkers

Approaching these applications with both scientific rigor and ethical sensitivity is essential for responsible use of neurodevelopmental knowledge.

Exam Success: Critical Concepts and Evaluation Points

To achieve high marks in your psychology exams, you need to demonstrate both knowledge of neurodevelopmental concepts and the ability to critically evaluate this information. This section will help you prepare for the types of questions you’re likely to encounter.

Common Exam Question Types

Psychology exam questions about neurodevelopment typically fall into several categories:

Knowledge and Understanding Questions

These test your basic knowledge of concepts and theories:

• “Describe the major stages of prenatal brain development.”
• “Outline the role of the prefrontal cortex in adolescent development.”
• “Explain the concept of neuroplasticity.”

For these questions, accuracy and completeness are key. Use appropriate terminology and include specific details such as dates, researcher names, and precise brain regions.

Application Questions

These ask you to apply concepts to new situations:

• “Explain how knowledge of sensitive periods might inform educational practices.”
• “How might understanding of adolescent brain development inform approaches to juvenile justice?”
• “Apply concepts of neuroplasticity to explain recovery from early brain injury.”

For application questions, clearly connect theoretical concepts to the specific context mentioned in the question.

Analysis Questions

These require breaking down information and examining relationships:

• “Compare and contrast critical periods and sensitive periods in brain development.”
• “Analyze the relationship between prenatal brain development and later cognitive outcomes.”
• “Examine the role of different brain regions in language development.”

Show your ability to identify patterns, make connections, and distinguish between related concepts.

Evaluation Questions

These test your ability to critically assess evidence and theories:

• “Evaluate the evidence that early childhood experiences permanently alter brain development.”
• “To what extent does neuroimaging research enhance our understanding of adolescent behavior?”
• “Critically discuss the ‘use it or lose it’ principle in brain development.”

These questions require balanced arguments, consideration of methodological issues, and recognition of limitations in current knowledge.

Key Evaluation Points for Different Topics

Different aspects of neurodevelopment have specific evaluation points worth considering:

Evaluating Research Methods

When discussing research methods in brain development:

• Ethical considerations: Ethical challenges in studying developing brains
• Ecological validity: Whether laboratory findings generalize to real-world development
• Cross-species translation: Strengths and limitations of animal models
• Technical limitations: Resolution and interpretational issues with brain imaging
• Developmental constraints: Methodological challenges studying certain age groups

Evaluating Nature-Nurture Interactions

When discussing genetic and environmental influences:

• Oversimplification: The problem with reducing complex development to either nature or nurture
• Gene-environment correlation: How genetic tendencies affect environmental experiences
• Differential susceptibility: Genetic differences in sensitivity to environments
• Epigenetic mechanisms: How environment affects gene expression
• Cultural context: How cultural factors influence developmental experiences and outcomes

Evaluating Applications

When discussing applications of neurodevelopmental knowledge:

• Evidence base: Strength of evidence supporting specific applications
• Translation issues: Challenges moving from lab to real-world settings
• Individual differences: How developmental variation affects application effectiveness
• Cost-benefit considerations: Practical constraints on implementation
• Cultural appropriateness: How cultural factors affect application

Exam Tip: High-Scoring Evaluation Verbs

Use these precise evaluation terms to demonstrate sophisticated critical thinking:

• Corroborate: “Smith’s findings corroborate Johnson’s theory that…”
• Contradict: “These results contradict earlier assumptions about…”
• Nuance: “This research nuances our understanding by showing that…”
• Validate: “Neuroimaging studies have validated the behavioral observations that…”
• Problematize: “These findings problematize simplistic views of critical periods by demonstrating…”
• Contextualize: “These results must be contextualized within developmental timing…”

Examiners notice and reward precise analytical language over vague terms like “supports” or “doesn’t support.”

Integrating Neurodevelopment With Other Topics

High-scoring answers often make connections between neurodevelopment and other areas of psychology:

Connections to Developmental Psychology

• How brain development relates to Piaget’s cognitive stages
• Neurological basis for attachment formation
• Brain mechanisms underlying theory of mind development

Connections to Clinical Psychology

• Neurodevelopmental basis of conditions like autism, ADHD, and anxiety
• How early brain development influences vulnerability to psychopathology
• Neural mechanisms of therapeutic interventions

Connections to Cognitive Psychology

• How brain development underlies memory development
• Neural basis of attention and executive function development
• Brain mechanisms of language acquisition

Content Organization Tool: BRAINWAVE Essay Planning Template

For structured, comprehensive exam essays on neurodevelopment topics:

Basic concepts – Define key terms and establish foundational concepts Research evidence – Present relevant studies and findings Application – Discuss real-world implications Integration – Connect to other psychological concepts Nuanced evaluation – Evaluate strengths and limitations

Wider context – Consider broader issues (ethical, social, cultural) Alternative perspectives – Present different viewpoints Verdict – Reach a balanced conclusion Evidence-based recommendations – Suggest future directions

Common Pitfalls to Avoid

Watch out for these common mistakes in neurodevelopment exam answers:

Descriptive Rather Than Analytical

Weak answers often merely describe brain structures or processes without analyzing their significance or evaluating evidence.

Deterministic Language

Avoid suggesting that brain development “determines” behavior; instead, use language like “influences,” “contributes to,” or “is associated with.”

Outdated Information

Neuroscience advances rapidly—ensure your knowledge reflects current understanding, not outdated concepts.

Overconfidence in Findings

Acknowledge limitations in current understanding and avoid overstating what neuroscience can tell us about development.

Failure to Consider Individual Differences

Remember that while there are general patterns in brain development, there is also substantial individual variation.

By mastering these exam techniques and applying them to your knowledge of neurodevelopment, you’ll be well-positioned to achieve excellent results in your psychology assessments.

Exam Tip: Resource Quality Assessment

When evaluating resources for study:

1. Check credentials: Is the author/creator a recognized expert in neuroscience or development?
2. Publication date: Neuroscience evolves rapidly—resources published within the past 5-7 years are preferable
3. Scientific consensus: Does the resource reflect mainstream scientific understanding or fringe views?
4. Intended audience: Is it aimed at students or professionals? Match resources to your current knowledge level
5. Evidence basis: Does it cite research or just make claims?

Conclusion: The Journey of Brain Development

Understanding neuroscience and early brain development provides a powerful foundation for your studies in psychology, sociology, and anthropology. The journey from neural tube to fully functioning brain represents one of nature’s most remarkable achievements—transforming a simple collection of cells into the most complex organ in the known universe.

As we’ve explored, this developmental process follows general patterns while accommodating tremendous individual variation. From the rapid prenatal foundation-building to the explosion of connections in early childhood and the refinement processes of adolescence, the brain develops through an intricate dance between genetic instructions and environmental experiences.

Several key themes emerge from our exploration:

1. Timing matters: The brain develops in a sequence, with different regions and functions having distinct developmental windows. Understanding these sensitive periods helps explain why certain experiences are particularly influential at specific ages.
2. Experiences shape the brain: Through processes like synapse formation, pruning, and myelination, experiences literally shape the physical architecture of the developing brain. This biological embedding of experience forms the neural foundation for learning, behavior, and health.
3. Plasticity and resilience: While early experiences are powerful, the brain maintains remarkable adaptability throughout life. This neuroplasticity provides opportunities for positive intervention and recovery even after challenges or adversity.
4. Development occurs in context: Brain development doesn’t happen in isolation but within physical, social, cultural, and historical contexts that influence developmental trajectories and outcomes.
5. Research continues to evolve: Our understanding of brain development is constantly expanding through advancing research methods and cross-disciplinary approaches.

Whether you pursue a career in psychology, education, healthcare, policy, or another field entirely, understanding the fundamental processes of brain development provides valuable insights into human potential, vulnerability, and resilience. It reminds us that while our brains are shaped by both nature and nurture, they are never completely determined—leaving room for growth, change, and intervention throughout life.

The study of brain development ultimately teaches us about our shared humanity—how we all begin with similar fundamental processes yet develop into uniquely individual beings through the complex interplay of biology and experience. This understanding invites both scientific curiosity and compassion as we consider how to create environments that support optimal development for all.

Frequently Asked Questions

What Is Neuroplasticity in Brain Development?

Neuroplasticity refers to the brain’s remarkable ability to change its structure and function in response to experience. In early development, the brain shows extraordinary plasticity, with experiences actively shaping neural connections through processes like synapse formation and pruning. While plasticity is greatest during sensitive periods in childhood, the brain maintains some capacity for change throughout life. This ongoing adaptability allows for learning, memory formation, and recovery from injury, though the ease and extent of change typically diminish with age.

How Does the Teenage Brain Differ From an Adult Brain?

The teenage brain differs from the adult brain primarily in its developmental status. Key differences include: 1) The prefrontal cortex, responsible for judgment and impulse control, is still developing; 2) Reward systems are highly active while regulatory systems are still maturing; 3) Synaptic pruning is actively refining neural connections; 4) Myelination is still increasing communication efficiency between brain regions. These differences help explain typical adolescent behaviors like risk-taking, emotional intensity, and sensitivity to social feedback.

What Factors Most Significantly Impact Early Brain Development?

The most significant factors impacting early brain development include: genetics (providing the basic blueprint); prenatal nutrition and health (supporting initial brain formation); quality of early relationships (shaping emotional regulation systems); language exposure (developing language circuits); appropriate stimulation (supporting sensory and cognitive development); absence of toxins (preventing interference with development); and adequate nutrition and sleep (providing necessary building blocks and recovery time). The interaction of these factors, rather than any single influence, shapes developmental outcomes.

How Do Traumatic Experiences Affect the Developing Brain?

Traumatic experiences can significantly impact the developing brain by activating stress response systems and potentially disrupting normal development. Prolonged or severe trauma can lead to: 1) Changes in stress-response systems, including altered cortisol patterns; 2) Increased reactivity in the amygdala (fear center); 3) Reduced volume in the hippocampus (memory formation); 4) Compromised development of the prefrontal cortex (emotional regulation); and 5) Altered connectivity between brain regions. However, supportive relationships and interventions can buffer these effects and promote resilience.

When Does the Brain Stop Developing?

The brain doesn’t have a single “completion date” for development. Different aspects mature at different rates, with some basic sensory systems fully developed in early childhood while the prefrontal cortex continues developing into the mid-20s, with some development continuing into the early 30s. Major structural development largely concludes by early adulthood, but functional refinement and connectivity changes continue throughout life. The brain maintains lifelong plasticity, allowing for ongoing learning and adaptation, though the rate and extent of change generally decrease with age.

How Do Screens and Technology Affect Brain Development?

Research on screen time and brain development suggests complex effects that depend on content, context, timing, and individual factors. Excessive screen use during early development may displace important activities like face-to-face interaction, physical play, and sleep. High-intensity, fast-paced content may affect attention development, while certain interactive applications may support specific cognitive skills. The developing brain is particularly sensitive to blue light affecting sleep cycles. Moderation, age-appropriate content, and parental co-engagement are recommended approaches based on current evidence.

What’s the Difference Between Critical Periods and Sensitive Periods?

Critical periods are specific windows when the brain absolutely requires certain experiences for normal development, with permanent deficits resulting if these experiences are absent. Examples include visual input for ocular dominance columns. Sensitive periods represent windows when the brain is especially receptive to certain experiences, with development occurring more efficiently during these times but still possible (though perhaps less optimal) outside them. Language acquisition represents a sensitive period—learning is easier in childhood but remains possible throughout life.

How Does Sleep Affect Brain Development?

Sleep plays a crucial role in brain development by facilitating memory consolidation, synaptic homeostasis, and neural repair. During sleep, the brain processes and organizes information acquired during wakefulness, strengthening important neural connections while weakening less important ones. Growth hormone release during deep sleep supports brain tissue development. Sleep disruption during development has been linked to attention problems, reduced learning capacity, emotional regulation difficulties, and altered brain connectivity patterns. Different developmental stages have different sleep requirements to support optimal brain development.

Can Early Brain Development Predict Future Intelligence or Success?

Early brain development provides a foundation for later capabilities but doesn’t deterministically predict intelligence or success. While certain developmental patterns (like early language processing efficiency) correlate with later outcomes, development is influenced by ongoing experiences, education, relationships, and opportunities throughout childhood and adolescence. The brain’s plasticity means that early trajectories can be significantly altered by later experiences and interventions. The most accurate view is that early development creates possibilities and probabilities rather than fixed destinies.

How Can I Apply Neuroscience to Improve My Own Learning?

You can apply neuroscience principles to enhance your learning by: 1) Using spaced repetition rather than cramming, as it optimizes memory consolidation; 2) Actively retrieving information through self-testing, which strengthens neural pathways; 3) Getting adequate sleep to support memory consolidation; 4) Engaging in regular physical exercise, which promotes brain health and neuroplasticity; 5) Reducing multitasking to prevent attention network overload; 6) Connecting new information to existing knowledge to strengthen neural networks; and 7) Teaching others, which requires deep processing that enhances your own neural representations of the material.

Further Reading and Research

Recommended Articles

• Kolb, B., & Gibb, R. (2011). Brain plasticity and behaviour in the developing brain. Journal of the Canadian Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 20(4), 265-276.
• Bick, J., & Nelson, C. A. (2016). Early adverse experiences and the developing brain. Neuropsychopharmacology, 41(1), 177-196.
• Fuhrmann, D., Knoll, L. J., & Blakemore, S. J. (2015). Adolescence as a sensitive period of brain development. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 19(10), 558-566.

Suggested Books

• Siegel, D. J. (2020). The Developing Mind: How Relationships and the Brain Interact to Shape Who We Are (3rd ed.). Guilford Press.
  • A comprehensive exploration of interpersonal neurobiology that connects brain development to relationships and mental health. Accessible to students with some background knowledge.
• Jensen, F. E., & Nutt, A. E. (2015). The Teenage Brain: A Neuroscientist’s Survival Guide to Raising Adolescents and Young Adults. Harper.
  • Written by a neurologist, this book explains the biological basis of adolescent behavior with practical implications for parents and educators.
• Sapolsky, R. M. (2017). Behave: The Biology of Humans at Our Best and Worst. Penguin Books.
  • A masterful integration of neuroscience, endocrinology, genetics, and evolutionary biology that explains human behavior across multiple timescales.

Recommended Websites

• Professor Sam Wass on the Neuroscience of Babies
• Harvard Center on the Developing Child (developingchild.harvard.edu)
  • Offers evidence-based resources on early brain development, including informative videos, infographics, and research briefs designed for students, educators, and policymakers.
• BrainFacts.org
  • Produced by the Society for Neuroscience, this site provides reliable, accessible information about the brain and nervous system, with special sections on brain development and educational resources.
• Neuroscience for Kids (faculty.washington.edu/chudler/neurok.html)
  • Despite the name, this University of Washington resource is appropriate for high school students, offering experiments, activities, and explanations of key neuroscience concepts in clear language.

References

• AQA. (2023). GCSE Psychology specification (8182). AQA.
• Arain, M., Haque, M., Johal, L., Mathur, P., Nel, W., Rais, A., Sandhu, R., & Sharma, S. (2013). Maturation of the adolescent brain. Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment, 9, 449-461.
• Bick, J., & Nelson, C. A. (2016). Early adverse experiences and the developing brain. Neuropsychopharmacology, 41(1), 177-196.
• Fuhrmann, D., Knoll, L. J., & Blakemore, S. J. (2015). Adolescence as a sensitive period of brain development. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 19(10), 558-566.
• Jensen, F. E., & Nutt, A. E. (2015). The Teenage Brain: A Neuroscientist’s Survival Guide to Raising Adolescents and Young Adults. Harper.
• Kolb, B., & Gibb, R. (2011). Brain plasticity and behaviour in the developing brain. Journal of the Canadian Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 20(4), 265-276.
• Nelson, C. A., Fox, N. A., & Zeanah, C. H. (2014). Romania’s Abandoned Children: Deprivation, Brain Development, and the Struggle for Recovery. Harvard University Press.
• Sapolsky, R. M. (2017). Behave: The Biology of Humans at Our Best and Worst. Penguin Books.
• Siegel, D. J. (2020). The Developing Mind: How Relationships and the Brain Interact to Shape Who We Are (3rd ed.). Guilford Press.
• Stiles, J., & Jernigan, T. L. (2010). The basics of brain development. Neuropsychology Review, 20(4), 327-348.

Kathy Brodie

Kathy Brodie is an Early Years Professional, Trainer and Author of multiple books on Early Years Education and Child Development. She is the founder of Early Years TV and the Early Years Summit.

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